The last movement comprises multiple contrasting sections: a slow introductory recitative, an arioso dolente, a fugue, a return of the arioso, and a second fugue that builds to a passionate and heroic conclusion. The Allegro second movement begins with a terse but humorous scherzo, which Martin Cooper believes is based on two folk songs, followed by a trio section. The Moderato first movement follows a typical sonata form with an expressive and cantabile opening theme. Though the sonata was commissioned in 1820, Beethoven did not begin work on Op. 110 until the latter half of 1821 due to factors such as his work on the Missa solemnis and his deteriorating health. The Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat major, Op. 110, by Ludwig van Beethoven (pictured) was published in 1822 the autograph score bears the date 25 December 1821. Portrait of Beethoven by Joseph Karl Stieler
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